From Foodservice Organizations: A Managerial Systems Approach, 4th edition, by Marian C. Spears. © 1995. Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, a division of Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Product Standards

Standards are a result of the managerial process of planning. In the discussion in Chapter 3 on the managerial function of controlling, these standards were defined as the measurement of what is expected to happen. They therefore provide the basis for monitoring performance of the organization and taking corrective action deemed necessary.

The word quality is often used in combination with standards and is central to the traditional statement of the objective of a foodservice: the production of the highest possible quality food. This leads to the difficult problem of defining quality.

In chapter 2, the objective of a foodservice was defined as the production of food to satisfy the expectations, desires, and needs of a particular customer. The primary quality attributes of this food are microbiological, nutritional, and sensory, which require controls throughout the procurement/production/service cycle to maintain them. The increased time lapse between the preparation and distribution of food to the customer in some foodservices is critical and requires monitoring for nutritional value. David (1979) defined quality food very simply as that which is satisfying to the customer, nutritious, and safe.

Although the customer's interpretation of quality is certainly important in the foodservice operation, quality can also be defined from a scientific standpoint. Thorner and Manning (1983) stated that the analyst or technologist refers to quality as an index or measurement obtained by grading or classifying a product's chemical and physical characteristics in accordance with explicit, predetermined specifications. The essential elements that must be evaluated in establishing the quality of a product are flavor, texture, appearance, consistency, palatability, nutritional value, safety, ease of handling, convenience, storage stability, and packaging.

Thorner and Manning (1983) identified two dominant factors in the evaluation of quality:

• The actual chemical or physical measurement of the product.
• The acceptance of the product by consumers.

In addition, management will be concerned with the relationship of quality to cost, profit, and selling price, in particular to cost of the product, profits generated, and consumer acceptance.

Many factors are responsible for poor-quality food, among them poor sanitation, improper handling, malfunctioning equipment, incorrect pre-preparation or preparation, and carelessness. Thorner and Manning (1983) compiled the following list of the prime factors responsible for significant quality changes.

• spoilage due to microbiological, biochemical, physical, or chemical factors
• adverse or incompatible water conditions
• poor sanitation and ineffective ware washing
• improper and incorrect precooking, cooking, and postcooking methods
• incorrect temperatures
• incorrect timing
• wrong formulations, stemming from incorrect weight of the food or its components
• poor equipment maintenance
• presence of vermin and pesticides
• poor packaging

Any of these factors, either singly or in combination, will contribute to poor quality and cause changes affecting the flavor, texture, appearance, and consistency of food.

The management of a foodservice operation should define the quality standards appropriate to a particular operation. In Chapter 8, an example of specifications for the type of steak that would be purchased for three different types of restaurants was described. This is an excellent illustration of the need to define quality in relation to the objectives of a specific foodservice.

In Figure 12.11, a typical menu for a university residence hall foodservice is given, together with the quality standards for evaluating each of the menu items. The assumption is made that the items will be prepared using a standardized recipe defining the ingredient amounts, precise production methods, product yield, and serving directions. Too frequently, foodservice managers have failed to define standards of quality for menu items, and therefore the basis for control and evaluation is not available. In Appendix B, product standards for several menu items for a university foodservice are included. These standards are good examples of the efforts of a management team to define quality for foodservice operations.

In the remainder of this chapter, various types of production controls that affect the microbiological quality, nutritional value, and acceptability of foods are discussed. Chapter 5 focused on sanitation principles in quantity food production.

Figure 12.11. Example of quality standards for a lunch menu in a university residence hall foodservice.

Product evaluation is an important component of a foodservice quality control program. As emphasized in Chapter 2, quality controls are essential at every step of foodservice operations, from development of procurement specifications through distribution and service to the customer. Quality control is a continuous process of checking to determine if standards are being followed, and if not, taking corrective action. Evaluating a product entails comparing to both the specification requirements for the ingredients and the determined standard for the finished product.

Food quality is evaluated by sensory, chemical, and physical methods. Sensory methods are used to determine if foods differ in such qualities as taste, odor, juiciness, tenderness, or texture and to define the extent and direction of the differences (Palmer, 1972). Chemical and physical methods for testing food often are used with sensory analysis to identify reasons for differences in color, texture, and flavor. These methods are usually more reproducible and less time-consuming than sensory analysis, but they are limited to areas in which they have been shown to measure the quality that is apparent to the senses.

In this text, sensory analysis is defined as a science that measures the texture, flavor, and appearance of food products through human senses. Commonalities in all the definitions are measurement, food characteristics, and human senses.

In very large foodservice organizations, competent personnel in quality control laboratories routinely conduct sensory, physical, and chemical tests during the initial development of new menu items. As discussed in Chapter 6, commissary foodservices frequently employ food technologists and microbiologists as staff specialists with responsibility for regular monitoring of quality control. Large multiunit operations often have a sophisticated quality control program centralized at corporate headquarters.

Physical and chemical testing of foods may be limited in smaller operations in which a full-scale quality control program is not justified. These tests are in the domain of food science and are beyond the scope of this text. Because sensory evaluation of new menu items by panels and consumer testing can be a regular part of any foodservice operation, practical applications will be discussed.

Skelton (1984) contended that to ensure continuing success, foodservice operations should use sensory evaluation for new menu items and for maintaining the quality of existing items. The cost of an error in a menu innovation can be extremely high, involving such costs as reprinting menus, training staff, and loss of business from dissatisfied patrons.

The necessary sensory evaluation of new menu items requires a sensory or consumer panel before serving them to customers. Sensory panels are relatively small, ranging from 6 to 12 persons trained to judge quality characteristics and differences among food items. Panel members must be experienced in the use of score cards and in the vocabulary of food description; they also must be able to distinguish among various levels of the basic tastes (sweet, salt, sour, and bitter) and to report their assessments with reasonable precision.

In contrast to the trained panel, the consumer panel usually includes 50 to 100 persons who are reasonably representative of the target market. The objective in using consumer panels is to evaluate acceptance of, or preference for, a menu item.

Analytical and affective sensory tests are used for product evaluation and defined as follows:

• Analytical sensory test--differences and similarities of quality and quantity of sensory characteristics are evaluated by a panel of specially trained persons, commonly identified as a trained panel.

• Affective sensory test--preference, acceptance, and opinions of a product are evaluated by consumers who have no special sensory training, commonly identified as an untrained panel.

Skelton (1984) outlined three general purposes for sensory tests in foodservice operations: discriminating among food items, describing characteristics, and determining acceptance and preference.

• Discrimination sensory test: This test determines detectable differences among food items. For example, judges may be presented three samples and asked to choose the one that is different. If the panel has difficulty identifying the odd sample, the conclusion can be made that the product was not altered by the ingredient or process change.
• Descriptive sensory test: Quality control and recipe development both depend on descriptive tests to provide information about certain sensory characteristics. Adjectives, numerical scales, and rankings are used to evaluate such attributes as taste, aroma, texture, tenderness, and consistency. Figure 12.15 gives a list of terms that are useful in describing food products.
• Acceptance and preference sensory test: This test, used with a consumer panel, is intended to answer the questions of whether or not people will like the menu item. Using this test, preference for certain characteristics may be rated, or an overall preference score may be attained. The conclusion can be made that one recipe is not better than the other if consumers indicate no difference in overall preference.

Properly designed, executed, and analyzed sensory tests can be used to assist the foodservice manager in developing products that are more likely to succeed in the marketplace and in setting standards for ingredients and menu items (Setser, 1992). Table 12.6 outlines typical problem areas and the type of panel and category of sensory test appropriate to each.

Appearance (optical properties)

• Color

  blueness	dark	greenness	redness
  bright	dull	light	white
  brownness	grayness	pale	yellowness

• Other optical properties ^a

  clear	iridescent	scum	translucent
  cloudy	lustrous	sediment	transparent
  frothy	muddy	shiny	uniform pigment distribution
  glossy	opaque	sparkling

Appearance (physical form) ^b

broken	large	rounded	smooth
crumbly	loose particles	shriveled	stringy
curdled	medium	shrunken	uniform shape
flat	rough	small	uniform size
irregular

Aroma and Flavor by Mouth ^c

burned	eggy	medicinal	scorched
buttery	fishy	nutty	spicy
caramelized	floral	putrid	starchy
dairy-like	fruity	rancid

Quality Judgments

acceptable	fresh	low	optimum
appealing	full-bodied	mellow	pleasing
delicate	good	normal	poor
desirable	high	objectionable	rich
excellent	ideal	obnoxious	stale

Taste and Chemical Feeling Factors

astringent	burning	sharp	sweet
biting	coolness	sour	tart
bitter

Textural Attributes

• Consistency--resistance to deformation through continuous changes of form

  liquid	stiff	thick	viscous
  runny	syrupy	thin	watery
  slimy

• Geometric properties--size, shape, and orientation of particles perceived by tactile nerves

  abrasive	crystalline	granular	rough
  aerated	even	irregular	sharp
  amorphous	fine	lumpy	smooth
  beady	flaky	porous	stringy
  broken	flat	powdery	uneven
  cellular	fluffy	puffy	uniform
  coarse	foamy	pulpy
  creamy	grainy	regular

• Mechanical deformation--reaction of food to stress

  adhesive	elastic	mealy	stiff
  bouncy	firm	pasty	sticky
  brittle	fracturable	plastic	tacky
  chewy	friable	rubbery	tender
  cohesiveness	gooey	short	tooth-packing
  crisp	gummy	soft	tough
  crumbly	hard	solid
  crunchy	limp	springy

• Mouth feel--physical feel of moistness and oiliness of food as it is broken down

  dehydrating	greasy	moist	saliva-inducing
  dry	juicy	mouth-coating	soggy

  ---

  ^a attributes related to transmission of light but not related to pigmentation

  ^b visual perceptions related to dimensions and adherence between particles

  ^c sensations produced by volatile substances through nasal and oral cavities that provide characteristic flavors perceived in foods and beverages

Figure 12.15. Terms used in judging food products.

Table 12.6. Problems solved by sensory evaluation.

Source: "Sensory Evaluation of Food" by M. Skelton, 1984, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 24(4), 51. Used by permission.

Before introducing a new menu item, the recipe must be standardized using the methods described in Chapter 11. The final step in recipe standardization is evaluation of the product for acceptability by a taste panel that usually consists of cooks, supervisors, and managers. Standards for evaluating a recipe for blueberry muffins and stir-fried chicken and vegetables are shown in Figure 12.16.

Blueberry Muffins A blueberry muffin should be scored on overall acceptability, including appearance, texture, tenderness, and flavor. The crust should be crisp, shiny, pebbly, and golden brown with a well-rounded top free from knobs. It should be large in volume compared to weight. The interior crumb should be moist, light, and tender with a coarse, even grain and no tunneling. The whole blueberries should be evenly distributed through the muffin. The blueberries should be moist but not discolor the muffin. The muffin flavor should be delicate, not bready or too sweet, and the blueberries should have a natural taste. Stir-Fried Chicken and Vegetables The chicken and vegetables should be scored on overall acceptability, including appearance, texture, tenderness, and flavor. The appearance should be pleasing and the chicken and vegetables identifiable. The bite-size pieces of chicken should be tender and juicy. The fresh vegetables should retain some of the original crispness and natural color. Fresh ginger and garlic should enhance, but not overpower, the flavors of the other ingredients. The sauce should be clear and ingredients glazed.

Figure 12.6. Example of quality standards for standardizing recipes.

Sensory analysis can be a useful tool for recipe standardization. In the early stages of this process, cooks and managers together can help in determining which sensory attributes are most affected by changes in formulation and ingredients and in indicating general trends in acceptability for those attributes. The two basic tests in this type of sensory evaluation are discrimination and acceptance. For discriminatory tests, such as difference tests and ranking, panelists do not need extensive training and large panels are not required. The paired comparison test can be used to differentiate between a pair of coded samples on the basis of some specified characteristic, such as sweetness, crumbliness, moistness when chewing, lightness, or degree of browning. A sample evaluation form for a paired comparison test is found in Figure 12.17.

Figure 12.17. Example of paired comparison test form.

The ranking test extends the paired comparison test to three or more coded samples, and panelists are asked to rank them by intensity of the characteristics that differentiate the products. For example, if moistness of crumb obviously is affected by changing the formulation of the recipe, this characteristic is one that should be ranked. An example of this type of questionnaire for a ranking test is provided in Figure 12.18.

Figure 12.18. Example of ranking test form.

Panelists should receive the samples for all tests in a random order to avoid any order biases in the testing. Ten to 12 panelists should be used. Results of the discrimination testing can be compared to affective testing of acceptance or preference to determine how panelists like the changes. For affective tests, the number and type of panelists are an important issue. Such tests are aimed at determining the response of the consumer to the product. If too few representative or unbiased panelists are used, the results can be questionable. In the laboratory, 20 to 40 panelists generally can establish relative desirability; for hedonic evaluations of products, 50 to 100 judgments usually are necessary. Larger panels are needed only when unusually high precision is required.

For the relative desirability information, the use of the paired comparison or ranking test is also appropriate. In this type of test, the panelists' response to the following statement is requested: "Two samples of stir-fried chicken and vegetables are presented. Taste each sample in the order specified and indicate which saltiness level you prefer." Further information can be obtained by using a hedonic scale for individual attributes. An example of such a scale for three characteristics of interest in the blueberry muffins is given in Figure 12.19. A comparison of the attribute intensity information from the discrimination testing and the relative preference data might suggest changes for the next test run, which likely would involve adjustments in ingredient quantities, cooking times, procedures, or serving methods. Generally, only one change should be made at a time in systematically evaluating the effect of the various changes. A cost analysis of different preparation methods for blueberry muffins is shown in Chapter 18 (see Table 18.1).

Figure 12.19. Example of a hedonic scale for rating the acceptance of blueberry muffin attributes.

Overall acceptability using the hedonic scale of two or more different muffins could also be obtained after recipe modifications are considered complete. Such evaluations of the product would likely include assessments from customers. To perfect some recipes, many tests might be needed. If test products are acceptable, the recipe is then put into the format being used in the operation and placed in the permanent file.

The foodservice manager must understand the principles of food production to perform competently in the planning and evaluation of foodservice operations. Food should be acceptable to the customer, produced in the appropriate quantity, microbiologically safe, and within budgetary constraints. Food is cooked to destroy harmful microorganisms, increase digestibility, and change and enhance flavor, form, color, texture, and aroma. The importance of adequate controls throughout the preparation, production, and service processes must be emphasized.

Cooking is scientifically based on principles of chemistry and physics. Heat causes many reactions to occur, and the type and amount of heat greatly affect the resulting product. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, radiation, and induction.

Cooking methods are classified either as moist heat or dry heat. Moist heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted to the food by water or steam. Dry heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted by dry air, hot metal, radiation, or a minimum amount of hot fat. Cooking methods and type of equipment are closely related and are important components of cooking technology, which has become more complex, primarily because of innovations resulting in efficiency and sophistication of equipment.

Standards, defined as the measurement of what is expected to happen, provide the basis for monitoring performance of the organization and taking necessary corrective action. The word quality often is used in combination with standards and should be defined in relation to the objectives of a specific foodservice. Management should be concerned with the relationship of quality to cost, profit, and selling price.

Standards are a result of the process of planning, and control is the process of ensuring that plans have been followed. Effective control does not occur until action has been taken to correct unacceptable deviations from standards. Quality control means ensuring consistency in each product offered for service, and quantity control means producing the exact amount needed. Both are related to control of costs and thus to profit or to meeting budgetary constraints.

Time and temperature are critical elements in quantity food production and must be controlled to produce a high-quality product. Yield is the amount of product resulting at the completion of the various phases of the procurement, production, and service cycles and usually is expressed as a definite weight, volume, or serving size. Portion control is one of the essentials in production of food in quantity and is dependent upon the use of standardized recipes, which include the size and number of portions to be produced.

Product evaluation is an important component of a foodservice quality control program. Food quality is evaluated by sensory, chemical, and physical methods. Sensory analysis is defined as a science that measures the texture, flavor, and appearance of food products through human senses; it should be used for new menu items and for maintaining quality of existing items. In one type of sensory test, identified as analytical, differences and similarities of quality and quantity of sensory characteristics are evaluated by a panel of specially trained persons; the other type is affective because preference, acceptance, and opinions of a product are evaluated by consumers.

American Society for Testing & Materials. (1988). American Society for Testing and Materials: Manual of sensory testing, methods. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 434. Philadelphia: Author.

Batty, J. (1990). Essentials from concept to clean-up. Restaurants USA, 10(10), 18-21.

Bean, R.L. (1990). What makes the Groen Gas Combo so special? The Consultant, 23(2).

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